Becoming social: Expanding scenario-based approaches in HCI

Scenarios of use support the integration of cognitive and organizational approaches to human±computer interaction (HCI) by providing a rich representation of activity from which cognitive and organizational perspectives can be developed. In this paper, a `cognitive’ approach to scenario-based analysis and designÐ one focused on causal relationships implicit in episodes of individual problem-solving and learningÐ is extended by emphasizing an organizational work view of social causes and effects. 1. Cognitive and organ izational approaches to HCI Integrating cognitive and organizational approaches toward human±computer interaction is more than just a timely idea; it is essential to an adequate analytical framework for understanding human±computer interaction. The use of a system or a program is almost never circumscribed by the individual cognition of a single user. Even in an extreme case, like the use of a wrist watch, other people will occasionally ask what the time is, and then share the experience as the user translates marks on the display into speech. Conversely, organizational accounts are essentially nom inal descriptions unless they articulate the cognitive dynamics that underlie organizational phenomena. For example, purely organizational discussions of `user participation’ can fail to resolve what the effects of participation can be on system development and utilization by failing to probe what participation is to the participants themselves (Van Offenbeek and Koopman 1996) . Perhaps the more remarkable point here is the apparent non-integration of cognitive and organizational perspectives on human±computer interaction, given their obvious interdependency. To a great extent, this is historical accident. The project of human±computer interaction was initially established within the intersection of cognitive psychology and computer science; it was peopled by cogni tive psychologists interested in technology and computer scientists interested in user interfaces (e.g. Card et al. 1983). The paradigmatic problem at the outset of this project was epitom ized by a single user, staring into a VDU, trying to accomplish a goal (e.g. altering format defaults for a document), or to make sense of a puzzling situation (e.g. the pointer disappears) or system prompt (e.g. `Doesn’ t say Set Aside `Clipboard’ ? Redo Step 2’ ). HCI has gradually incorporated broader-score social science analyses, and a broader analysis of the nature of systems and usability. Thus, anthropological ® eld methods are not uncommon as an approach to de ® ning requirements (Harper and Sellen 1995, Rao et al. 1994). And the nature of the design and development process is widely seen both as an important technology context in which to implement usability interventions and as itself in need of re-engineering for usability (e.g. Karat and Dayton 1995, Kyng 1995). Organizational approaches to information technology were always ® rmly rooted in the re-engineering of workplace practices, owing to the early and continuing in ̄ uence of socio-technical design (Mumford 1987, Pava 1983). Indeed, beginning in the 1950s, the socio-technical school articulated practical rationale for what are now called participatory design and evolutionary design, describing the relation between technological systems and social systems as one of mutual constraint. However, organizational work has not in general been closely integrated with the development of new computing technology. Thus, for example, the genesis of the technology sub-system in socio-technical design is often a matter of selecting among off-the-shelf software produc ts (Pava 1983). Over the past decade, under the rising aegis of computersupported cooperative work (CSCW), research on organizational aspects has adopted a more technically proactive orientation. This has provided excellent case studies of how workplace analysis and the development of leading-edge computing technology can be effectively integrated 0144-929X/96 $12.00 € 1996 Taylor & Francis Ltd. BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY , 1996, VOL. 15, NO. 4, 266±275